Even earlier than the Pentium MMX, the 6th generation processor appeared - Pentium Pro. It, for the first time for IBM-compatible PCs, used elements of the RISC architecture, which made it possible to increase performance quite flexibly. However, optimization of the processor for 32-bit programs and high production costs did not allow it to become widespread.
Since the beginning of computing, the number of computers has been decreasing due to the miniaturization of its circuits. From electronic vacuum valves in the first generation of computers, they were transferred to small transistors in the second generation of computers; then evolved to third generation integrated circuits and then to fourth generation microchips.
Modern microcomputers have a central processor, with the exception of the main memory, inside a silicon microchip, which due to its small size is called a microprocessor. It is located in main memory, where instructions are stored for the computer to execute; the data required by these instructions is also stored, and the intermediate and final results of information processing are stored. Main memory functions as big file, in which some of the stored information can be changed by the user, while the other part must remain unchanged.
NOTE
Pentium Pro processors are classified as modern for the reason that the successor to the Pentium 4 is Core processor 2 Duo was based specifically on the Pentium Pro architecture, albeit deeply modernized.
Pentium II, Pentium III and Celeron
Having made a number of improvements to the Pentium Pro and adding support for MMX instructions, Intel finally found a replacement for the Pentium and called it Pentium II. The first Pentium IIs ran on a 66 MHz bus and had a native clock frequency of 233 to 333 MHz. Then a 100 MHz bus and new processors with frequencies of 350, 400 and 450 MHz appeared. However new processor remained too expensive for systems entry level, resulting in the appearance of Celeron - complete analogue Pentium II, except that it had less cache memory (and the first model did not have it at all) and only ran on a 66 MHz bus.
It is in the microprocessor where information processing is performed to produce useful results. Integer operations require the same five phases. The division operation is slower because it generates two private bits for each clock cycle. It has 8 KB of L1 write-back cache for exclusive instruction processing and has another 8 KB of L1 write-back cache for data processing.
In addition, it allows you to enable an external L2 cache to protect the microprocessor. In addition, it includes 256 KB of L2 cache in the microprocessor. The most important advantage of using a cache in a microprocessor is the fact that this memory operates at the same speed as the microprocessor, and not at the same speed as the microprocessor. motherboard, which would arise in the case of an external cache. 6-micron technology is used in the 150 MHz version of the microprocessor, and one of 35 mm in the 200 MHz version.
NOTE
Starting with the 386th processor, Intel began to use special, ultra-fast memory located as close as possible to the processor. It stores data that is directly involved in the current calculation. This memory is called cache memory and significantly increases the speed of the PC. Its volume, as a rule, ranges from 128 to 512 KB.
Another innovation is the non-standard execution of parallel instructions. . Its commercial speeds are 233 MHz, 266 MHz and 300 MHz. The processor architecture allows up to 8 processors to be processed in parallel. The motherboard speed is 100 MHz. Microprocessor performance is just one factor that affects computer performance.
A computer consists of subsystems: processor, memory, input and output devices. The reason for his apparent intelligence is the speed with which he can perform simple instructions. A microprocessor can process more than 100 million instructions per second. Its function is to execute programs stored in main memory, take each instruction from them, check it and execute them one by one. To learn how this works, refer to How a Microprocessor Works.
The latest modification of the Pentium Pro is the Pentium III. It differs from its predecessor (Pentium II) primarily in the presence of SSE commands, which are significantly more efficient than MMX. The latest Pentium III and Celeron models operate at frequencies above 1 GHz.
Analogues: AMD Athlon(K7), AMD Duron.
Pentium 4
Late 2000 Intel of the Year finally released the 7th generation processor. And although the Pentium 4 is the first processor that cannot execute more instructions in one clock cycle than its predecessor, it has very good potential for increasing the clock speed. Already the first samples ran at 1.5 GHz (1500 MHz), and the latest models ran at clock speeds above 3.5 GHz, and Intel planned to release 10 GHz models by the end of 2010.
It directs the operations of all other parts of the computer, including peripheral devices. The control unit receives instructions from memory, interprets them, and then passes them on to the appropriate component to perform the specified job. Logs are a collection of places where the processor stores data while it is working on it.
A group of segment logs is used to help the processor find its way through computer memory. They are useful for assisting in the processes of collecting data from memory. Others help with data movement tasks. For technical administration purposes, the following divisions are known.
In addition to high clock speeds, the Pentium 4 has support for new SSE2 commands designed to speed up video processing, and the latest models, starting at 3.06 GHz, can emulate the operation of two processors.
The features of the first systems based on Pentium 4 include high power consumption - for stable operation it is recommended to use a power source with a power of at least 300 W. The Pentium 4 was currently competing with the Athlon XP and Athlon 64 processors from AMD.
The maximum capacity of conventional memory is 640 KB. The memory located in the direction between 640 KB and 1 MB is called top memory and is 384 KB in size. It stores programs that support certain pieces of hardware. Another small portion was used for video recordings, where information is stored on monochrome or color monitors.
This is memory above 640 KB, it appears when software and computer designers realized that 1 MB has very little memory. All memory above 640 KB is extended memory. This is the first 64 KB of extended memory. Spreadsheet users were the first to demand more memory. When you work with them, you store them in memory; the more memory you have, the more tables you can create. For large users of these programs, 640 KB was not enough. A solution was proposed that used a combination of hardware and software.
Core 2 Duo, Core 2 Quad
Since serious technological and fundamental physical limitations prevented the release of processor models at frequencies of 4 GHz or more, in 2006 Intel released processors of the Core 2 family, which could execute more commands in one clock cycle and initially included 2 computing cores. Those. in fact, one crystal housed 2 full-fledged processors at once. And a little later, 4-core (Core 2 Quad) models appeared. Thus, the gigahertz race was completed and the race of cores began.
Extended memory does not mean that the memory is beyond the 1 MB mark, and programs cannot run in this zone. All microcomputers have a clock system that is used by computers to derive time from their processing operations. The first computers ran at 77 megahertz. Hertz is a measure of cycles of one cycle per second. A cycle is the time it takes to complete an operation, such as moving a byte from one location in memory to another.
These slots provide a way for components that are not physically connected or soldered to the main board to access the computer bus. Typically the only exceptions are the keyboard and sometimes the mouse. Expansion slots are used for three purposes. Provide integrated devices, such as hard drives and floppy drives, access to the computer bus through controller cards. Adapters that cover these purposes not only provide a port to which these devices can connect, but also serve as translators between the bus and the same device.
Competitors - AMD Athlon X2, Phenom
Core i3/i5/i7
The latest Intel processors - Core i7 - inherited monothreading support from Pentium 4, and high power density of the computing core from Core 2. Thus, 2-core Core i3/i5 have 4 virtual cores, and 4-core Core i7 have 8, and 6-core Core i7 have as many as 12!
Competitors Core i3/i5 - AMD Athlon II/Phenom II X2/X3/X4, Core i7 - Phenom II X6.
Some adapters even do a lot of data processing. Likewise, the integration of modem ports, pointing devices and printers, and device interfaces limits user options. Providing expansion slots rather than creating interfaces for these devices on the computer allows the user to determine how many ports and what type to install.
Just a few years ago the situation was simple - the higher the frequency at which the processor operated, the faster the system was. The choice of a modern processor can no longer be dictated by clock speed alone. Interestingly, some processors also have a graphics layout. Unfortunately, manufacturers also get along well by giving their systems a new, not necessarily logical, name.
I. How are processors measured?
There is one very serious problem of modern computer equipment in general and processors in particular - how to independently and unambiguously evaluate the speed of a computer? Until recently, many compared the speed of processors to each other based on their clock speed. The vast majority of computer buyers thought that, for example, a computer with a “two thousand something” processor would be faster than a “one thousand eight hundred.” And the “two and a half thousand” processor is even faster. This was only partly true, because even then, in addition to “thousands of something there,” processors also had other characteristics: system bus frequency - that is, the speed at which the processor “communicates” with the rest of the computer; cache size - that is, the size of the processor’s internal memory. For example, a 2.8 GHz Pentium IV processor with a 400 MHz front side bus was sometimes slower in some programs than a 2.6 GHz Pentium IV processor with a 533 MHz front side bus. In this case, the natural frequency indicator - 2.8 GHz (or "two thousand eight hundred megahertz") was absolutely biased and not
See how a multi-core processor works
Quartz sand consists of a silicon wafer several centimeters long. But before sand becomes a technologically complex product, it must go through many stages of production. The difficulty is that absolute cleanliness is required during production. Even the smallest dust can destroy the microscopic circuitry of a processor. Therefore, all workers involved in production wear dust-proof suits, as well as mouth and head coverings.
First, special quartz sand is melted. From the melt mass, as here at Siltronik, a large cylinder is formed in a special device, the so-called monolithic silicon crystal. After cooling, the block goes to the saw, where it is cut into pieces 0.9 mm thick. The wafers are then cleaned and at this stage they have a completely smooth surface.
displayed the actual speed of the processor.
And now the situation has gotten even worse. Intel and AMD corporations began to increase the speed of their processors not due to frequency, but due to other parameters - internal circuitry and multi-cores. That is, first, the internal circuit of the processor was significantly improved, due to which the processor began to process more information in one cycle of its operation. Second, one of the most revolutionary decisions was made: instead of further straining with increasing the speed of one processor, engineers took and inserted two processors at once, or even four, into one physical chip. Such solutions are called dual-core and quad-core. It is logical to assume that two processors together can process more information than one,
The processors are still subject to spot checks on the wafer. Employees examine the wafer under a microscope using special testing equipment. Silicon patches cut out the processors and place them in the case. At the bottom of the case there are hundreds of pins that connect the processor to motherboard.
Features of modern processors
To help navigate the model aisle, manufacturers have divided processors into series, also called families. Depending on the model, the processor uses two or four computing cores. This allows the computer to run multiple programs at the same time without noticeable performance degradation. They have four processing cores and are designed for demanding gamers and those who use applications large capacity. However, they will still be using office applications, surfing the Internet, and watching videos.
- On this moment Such processors are already outdated.
- Suitable for home computers.
Accordingly, they will work together faster. Which, in general, has been confirmed by practice. With a physical processor frequency of, for example, 1.86 GHz, the new dual-core processors are several times faster than their previous Pentium IV counterparts with a frequency of 3.2 GHz or even 3.4 GHz. At the same time, new processors heat up much less and consume much less electricity.
Integrated Memory Controller: Previously, a special component installed on the motherboard had to control the operation of the memory. Thus, the memory is better connected to the processor, and data access is faster. Fast cache: Since transferring data to and from memory is relatively slow, all processors have a cache that provides data faster. The system runs four programs at a time, and the processor allocates them to different function blocks. This way the processor can be better utilized and the PC becomes a few, a dozen or so faster. This makes a separate graphics card or a card integrated with the motherboard chipset is redundant and computer manufacturing is cheaper. The processor reports twice as many processing cores. . Fans of fast-paced games still need a powerful graphics card, but for simple games and typical home and office applications The built-in graphics are sufficient.
But how can you accurately compare the speed of new processors with old ones? How to measure the speed of work, in what units? If earlier, I repeat, people looked at the processor frequency (although this was not entirely true even then), then how can they estimate the speed now? What? It's so unclear
people uninitiated into these subtleties, that many begin to come up with some incomprehensible comparisons for themselves. For example, there is a statement that the processor frequency must be multiplied by the number of cores. Say, if dual core processor with a frequency of 1.86, which means each core runs at 1.86, which means the entire processor runs at 3.72. I'll tell you what - this is complete nonsense. What people cannot understand is that the processor operates entirely at 1.86 GHz, and the speed is achieved due to a more advanced internal circuit and optimization of programs for multi-cores, due to which its real speed of working with programs can be compared with a hypothetical Pentium IV 4 .5, or probably even 5.0.
See what computer hardware looked like 10 years ago
Inactive cores will disappear, and those that will process the application will be sped up.
Laptop News
The technical details of this solution are not yet known. . Progressive miniaturization: Each processor consists of millions of transistors. As soon as one transistor was gigantic.Performance differences within the same processor family
It is worth noting that, despite their appearance, they are not very valuable. In this case, instead of 4 cores, the processor has as many as six. This makes it more efficient - especially when the application supports multi-threaded computing.
A fast processor is a good solution
Only if the cost is negligible for us, because increasing productivity is quite expensive. Instead of investing in such an expensive processor, it is much better to bet on a cheaper model and save money to buy more memory, faster and more disks, and a more powerful graphics card.In order not to bother buyers with all sorts of frequencies, caches and other characteristics, Intel has long since made a logical marketing move - it introduced the processor number. Let me explain: each technical product has a certain model number, which accurately and unambiguously identifies a certain device with certain technical characteristics. And, it is quite logical that the higher this number, the newer the model and, accordingly, higher and better specifications. Entering the processor number makes it very easy for the buyer to select the necessary purchase. Now you don’t need to delve into frequencies, caches, buses, now you just need to know the number (model) of the processor. All other things being equal, a processor, for example, a Core 2 Duo E8400 will be more powerful than a Core 2 Duo E7400. And you don’t need to know that the Core 2 Duo E7400 has a frequency of 2.8 GHz, a 1066 MHz system bus, a 3 MB cache, and the Core 2 Duo E8400 has a 3 GHz frequency, a 1333 MHz bus, a 6 MB cache. You don’t need to know all these numbers, much less understand them!!! It’s enough to compare two numbers: 7400 and 8400. Well, and, of course, look at the difference in price.
Now let’s look at what kind of processors our respected global manufacturers produce today, in what cases and for what purposes these processors can be used.
II. Intel processors.
II.1 Why such diversity.
You know, I’ll tell you a secret, at one of Intel’s seminars for sellers, a company representative told us that Intel sets up all sellers to try to persuade buyers to the most powerful, latest and, naturally, most expensive processor models. In principle, this is correct, and the point here is not only that Intel is simply trying to increase profits in this way. The fact is that by buying one of the fastest or even the fastest processor today, you get the maximum benefit from your computer and can perform the widest range of tasks.
But when conducting such trainings for salespeople, Intel is being a little disingenuous, because at the same time it is creating a huge range of completely new processors, from the simplest and cheapest to the fastest and most expensive. Such a wide range of processors that Intel has today has never existed in the history of this company.
Why is this happening? The fact is that most buyers of new computers probably know very little about them or even know nothing at all about computers. But almost everyone has heard that computers are developing very quickly, becoming more and more powerful almost every day. This is absolutely correct, but here's the thing: in recent years, computers have come so far forward, so developed, that even the most inexpensive of new modern computers easily cope with a very wide range of tasks.
Even if you take a computer based on the “weakest” of modern processors Intel - Celeron 430, then on such a computer you can easily perform any office work: a set of tests, essays, coursework, theses, you can prepare doctoral dissertations, you can work on the Internet, study English and other languages, you can watch films and listen to music, and keep accounts for several enterprises. Why am I saying all this: buying computers with very powerful and expensive processors Today, you may be overpaying for features that you most likely won't use.
That is why there is such a variety of processors. So that everyone can choose the computer that is most suitable both in terms of characteristics and price.
II.2 The lineup Intel processors.
If previously all processors from Intel were divided into two large groups - Celeron and Pentium, then modern processors from Intel today can be divided into 4 large groups:
- Celeron.
- Pentium Dual Core.
- Core 2 Duo.
- Quad Core.
Each of these groups is divided into several types. Full list You can find Intel processors on the company's official website, and I present the most important of them to you in the following summary table.
| Name | Options | Areas of use | Approximate price |
| Celeron 430 | Frequency – 1.8 GHz Cache - 512 KB | The cheapest modern Intel processor, the only single-core one. Ideal for any office computers: documents, Internet, accounting, music, films. | $45 — $50 |
| Celeron Dual Core E1400 | Frequency - 2 GHz Cache - 512 KB System bus frequency - 800 MHz | Almost the same as the previous version, but the E1200 is a full-fledged dual-core processor. Accordingly, it works much faster than the previous processor. With not a very big difference in price with the previous processor, you get an inexpensive dual-core, fairly fast option. | $60 |
| Pentium Dual Core E2200 | Frequency – 2.2 GHz Cache - 1 MB System bus frequency - 800 MHz | The youngest, but full-fledged dual-core Pentium Dual Core. When buying a computer for your own home, but at the same time saving money, this is a very profitable option. | $80 |
| Pentium Dual Core E5200 | Frequency – 2.5 GHz Cache - 1 MB System bus frequency - 800 MHz | The price difference with the previous processor is simply ridiculous. And the frequency is higher. Moreover, it’s a full-fledged Pentium. I would choose the E5200 over the E2200 | $84 |
| Pentium Dual Core E5400 | Frequency – 2.7 GHz Cache - 2 MB System bus frequency - 800 MHz | The most powerful of the Pentium Dual Cores. But the price is already quite high. It might be worth adding and jumping to the next level - Core 2 Duo. | $115 |
| Core 2 Duo E7400 | Frequency – 2.8 GHz Cache - 3 MB System bus frequency - 1000 MHz | The youngest processor from Core series 2 Duo for today. Not a super big difference with the previous processor, but a significant difference in operating speed. If funds allow, my advice is: it is better to buy the E7400. If you're going to save money, then the E5200, or something else lower. | $145 |
| Core 2 Duo E8400 | Frequency - 3 GHz Cache - 6 MB | The first of the Core 2 Duo with a system bus frequency of 1333 MHz. In combination with 6 MB cache memory and 3 GHz native frequency, this processor produces simply phenomenal performance results. Very important for games and powerful programs. And at a very reasonable price. | $210 |
| Core2 Quad Q8200 | Frequency – 2.33 GHz Cache - 4 MB System bus frequency - 1333 MHz | The youngest (to date) of the quad-core processors. Despite the lower operating frequency and smaller cache compared to the previous processor, this processor works faster in programs specially optimized for multi-core applications. If the program is not designed to work on multi-core processor, there will be no effect from four cores. And, in this case, the previous processor will be a more optimal purchase. | $210 |
| Core2 Quad Q9400 | Frequency – 2.66 GHz Cache - 6 MB System bus frequency - 1333 MHz | This processor begins a series that I would call processors for fans and gamers. One of the most powerful processors today. I can’t even imagine a task that this processor couldn’t handle. But the price is at the level of the cheapest, but still full-fledged computer. | $285 |
| Core 2 Duo E9550 | Frequency – 2.83 GHz Cache - 12 MB System bus frequency - 1333 MHz | Super speed and super price. | $340 |
| Core 2 Duo E9650 | Frequency - 3 GHz Cache - 12 MB System bus frequency - 1333 MHz | Please note that, unlike the previous processor, the frequency has not increased much, the other parameters have not changed at all. This is a redundant processor for many tasks. It is bought mainly only by fans and avid gamers. Therefore, the manufacturer is no longer embarrassed and sharply raises the price. They will buy it anyway, because fans of any business never bother with such a concept as “expensive.” | $428 |
| INTEL Core i7-920 Socket LGA1366 | Frequency – 2.66 GHz Cache - 8 MB Hyper-Threading | New processors can no longer withstand the gradually aging processor socket with 775 pins, the so-called Socket LGA775. It was replaced by a more advanced and more multi-pin connector, Socket LGA1366. And, of course, a corresponding processor is produced for it, the youngest of which is the Core i7-920. Not only is it quad-core, but each of its cores has Hyper-Threading technology. In a nutshell, Hyper-Threading is virtual dual-core technology, which, however, does not work in all programs. However, theoretically this processor works like an eight-core processor!!! Can you imagine its speed? And the price for all this pleasure is, in principle, quite affordable, without fanaticism. | $360 |
| INTEL Core i7-940 Socket LGA1366 | Frequency – 2.93 GHz Cache - 8 MB Hyper-Threading | Almost the same, but the price is already breaking all records. | $690 |
| INTEL Core i7 Extreme Edition 965 | Frequency - 3.2 GHz Cache - 8 MB | Special individual development for those who have nowhere to spend money. Practical Application I don't see any for this processor at all. Yes, and assembling it into a computer will be quite problematic, because you need very powerful system cooling and corresponding power supply system. | $1240 |
There are literally two more points about Intel: first, you may have a question: “Where did the Core 1 Duo processor or just Core Duo go? After all, if there is a Core 2 Duo, then in theory there should be the same processor, but without 2.” That's right, such a processor exists, but it is produced only in special modifications for laptops, and such a processor does not exist for desktop computers. Secondly, in the price lists you can see a group of processors whose names contain the word Xeon. Ignore these processors, they exist for special powerful server computers designed to manage computer networks. In ordinary desktop computers Xeon processors do not apply.
III. AMD processors.
With the release of the K6 and K6-2 processors, AMD became a full-fledged player in the microprocessor market. At first, processors from AMD were considered cheap and quite fast. Then - how about the cheapest and fastest. And when the price AMD processors almost equal to the price of processors from Intel, AMD had to think about low-cost market segments. Imitating Intel with its Celeron processors, AMD began releasing its processors with simplified characteristics and inexpensive prices. These processors are called Duron. After a while these inexpensive processors became known as Sempron. Today, due to competition with Intel company AMD had to significantly reduce the prices of its processors, as a result of which AMD's Athlon processors became so cheaper that the need for even cheaper Semprons completely disappeared. Athlon processors Today they have occupied the niche of inexpensive products, but they have been replaced by more advanced and powerful processors Phenom.
Today, AMD processors are divided into three large groups:
- Athlon.
- Phenom X3 - tri-core.
- Phenom X4 - quad-core.
| Name | Options | Areas of use | Approximate price |
| Athlon 64 LE-1620 | Frequency – 2.4 GHz Cache - 1024 KB | The cheapest of modern AMD processors, practically the only single-core one. Ideal for any office computers: documents, Internet, accounting, music, movies. | $48 |
| Athlon 64 X2 4400+ | Frequency – 2.3 GHz Cache - 2x512 KB | Full dual-core processor. Each core has its own cache of 512 kilobytes. With not a very big difference in price with the previous processor, you get an inexpensive dual-core, fairly fast option. | $60 |
| Athlon 64 X2 5200+ | Frequency – 2.6 GHz Cache - 2x1024 KB | Higher processor frequency and core cache size provide greater performance gains than in the previous version. | $75 |
| Athlon 64 X2 6000+ | Frequency - 3.1 GHz Cache - 2x512 KB | Almost the most powerful dual-core AMD. | $95 |
| Phenom X3 8650 | Frequency - 3 GHz Cache - 3x1 MB | The youngest of the three-core processors from AMD. | $110 |
| Phenom X4 9650 | Frequency – 2.3 GHz Cache - 2 MB | Quad-core processor from AMD. However, you can see the frequencies of these cores and cache. What do you think the operating speed will be compared to Intel? | $150 |
| Phenom II X3 720 | Frequency – 2.8 GHz Cache - 6 MB | A new generation of Phenom processors, the so-called Phenom II. And this version of its modification is tri-core. With improved circuitry and, as a result, higher operating speed. Well, time will tell how effective these improvements were. | $175 |
| AMD Phenom II X4 940 Black Edition | Frequency - 3 GHz Cache - 6 MB | The most powerful AMD has. Quad-core Phenom II. | $235 |
IV. Comparison and conclusions.
As you can see, today prices for processors from AMD are significantly lower. What about speed? A very difficult question that I asked back in the first chapter. How to directly measure the speed of two processors and in what way? There is a huge number of a wide variety of test programs that are used by various test laboratories of computer magazines. However, the results of these tests should only be partially trusted.
For example, if we run a test program on a Celeron-based computer, then the program starts working in the conditions of this particular computer, with clock frequency this particular processor, with this motherboard, etc. That is, the program makes all measurements in some relative units relative to this particular computer. If you run the same program on a computer based on Core 2 Duo, then the program will take measurements in relative units of this faster computer.
Of course, the programmer tries to make the program independent of processors and computers, but this is quite difficult. Because, again, there are no single relative units of speed for the processor in particular and the computer in general.
There are cases when a program is deliberately optimized by the programmer for one type of processor, for example, only for Intel or for AMD. And on a processor from another manufacturer the program either does not work at all or works very slowly. That is why I would not recommend trusting various test programs, as well as the results of testing on these programs.
Subjectively, you can run several programs that you most often work with on several computers and visually compare how quickly these programs will work. This way, you can subjectively evaluate the speed of different computers.
In any case, you need to understand that the higher the processor model and, accordingly, its price, the faster the processor itself and the computer assembled on its basis work. All you have to do is compare your needs from a computer with your financial capabilities and make the final choice.
Happy shopping!
